The Role of Language and Communication in National Transfromation

The relationship between language and communication in the business of information encoding and dissemination cannot be over looked. Despite the fact that the two concepts are different in meaning, the roles they play are complementary in many ways.Language is a process by which information can be carried out from one party to another, while communication refers to the chain of activities that make it possible for information, ideas, emotions and experiences to be conveyed from one party to the other. The process of communication starts with the source that first puts the message information in a code or language before it is sent to the receiver. The major focus of this work is to examine how language and communication agree in achieving effective information delivery for National Transformation. A documentary approach was applied.It was found out that the issue of language and communication is at the core of national transformation in Nigeria. Some variables that are relevant to th is work are examined. These findings led to the conclusion that for Nigeria to move forward in its transformational strides in the 21st century, language and communication must be strengthened at all cost. 1. 0: INTRODUCTION Language plays a very vital role in human society. The language of any human society tells a lot about that society. Therefore, it can be further emphasized that language and communication are inseparable.In any human society, language and communication occupy a very important seat, more than it appears to all. The functions of language and communication in any human community include the following; expression of thoughts, political, administration, education, social, religious, legislation and so on. It is imperative to note that of all the channels of communication, language is the most important. This is because all other means of communication like gestures and signs are only needful in the face-to-face circumstance.Language plays a vital role in this and st ill remains the most effective means of communication. Through language and communication, we can see the heart of a people. This implies that language makes it possible to express feelings, emotions, views, ideas, opinions, perceptions, as well as judgment about people, objects, places, things, information and situations, Obuh and Omenogor (2012). 2. 0: WHAT IS LANGUAGE? Language is a viable implement used by man for the purpose of communication. It is human-specific and this differentiates man from other creatures.Language has contributed enormously to the great transformation of our society politically, religiously, socially and economically. For the sake of this paper, we need a definition of language. There is a plethora of definitions of the concept of language. Sapir (1963) asserts that: â€Å"language is the key to the heart of a people† this means that language is a purely human and non-instinctive type of communication. Moreso, Moulton (1974), sees language as: â₠¬Å"a wonderful and rich vehicle of communication, which is: expression of ideas, wishes, commands, conveyance of truths and lies. He also said that only human beings have the attribute of sending and receiving an unlimited number of messages. This implies that language is a feature common to human beings. Haugen (1974) explains language as: â€Å"a man’s most distinctive and significant type of social behaviour†¦ learned anew by every child. † Language and communication are inseparably linked in the heart of a people. According to Allen and Corder (1973:27), â€Å"language is purely a human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols†.Hall (1980:16) defines language as: â€Å"the institutions where by humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral auditory symbols†. Bolinger (1975:14), views language as: â€Å"a system of vocal-auditory communicati on interacting with the experiences of its users, employing conventional signs composed of arbitrarily patterned sound units and assembled according to set rules†. In another development, Essien (1998:2) sees language as: A system of structured arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which human beings make meaning nd communicate with each other in a given community†¦. These definitions recognize the communicative role of language which is specifically used by human beings for the purpose of interaction. By implication, language is in essence a perfect means of expression among every known people. It is important to note that language determines the world-view of a people. It is the connection between language and communication in information delivery for national transformation that is the fulcrum of this discourse.In as much as human beings use language, communication remains its primary target. 2. 1: FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE These can be seen as some speci al qualities and role that are common to a typical human language. Human language is used in a number of functions and topmost among which is communication. In the same vein, language is known with the following properties: LANGUAGE IS A LIVING PHENOMENON: This is attributed to a language because language just like other creatures can be ‘born’, ‘grow’, and ‘die’. Creating a language is like giving birth to a language.A language grows when it undergoes a kind of structural and semantic expansion. A language dies when it is no longer used or spoken by any group of people in any part of the world as a means of communication. IT IS ARBITRARY: This implies that there is no logic or reasonable resemblance between words and expressions of a given language and their basic meanings or what they stand for. Example, â€Å"the spoon is in the cup on the table† does not logically look like what it means because of the arbitrariness of each of its co nstituents parts.In the same vein, human language is conventional. This is closely related to the arbitrariness of language, because a language is conventional in the sense that its meaningful usage is based on general opinion, consent, knowledge or acceptability of its various speakers Oluga (2006) EVERY LANGUAGE IS RULE GOVERNED: This means that the acceptable and correct use of a giving language is usually guided at the various linguistic levels by set of an operating rules and principles called ‘Grammar’.Every language has its own grammar which may not be the same with those of other languages and any deviation from such grammatical rules will render language use ungrammatical. IT IS SYMBOLIC: This means that language also involves the use of various symbols which invariably aids comprehension of the meaning of language. However, symbols may or may not be physical. It is not physical if what is meant is the mental image already pictured in the language users’ mind which comes to mind whenever the signifier is mentioned.LANGUAGE IS PURELY HUMAN: The school of thought who advocates these characteristics are those who believe in the incomparability of the human language. To them, language is one of the main distinctive features by which human beings can be identified, hence, it is only the human means of communication that is highly complex and developed and which can explain virtually everything that they identify as language. LANGUAGE IS COMPLEX BUT FLEXIBLE: Language complexity means that language is made up of various, but logical related, constituent parts that can be properly combined to express unlimited ideals.While language flexibility means that language is not an unreasonably rigid source of communication but one that can be modified in various ways to express various ideas. One can even say something and mean the opposite of what one says and yet the intended meaning of one’s message would be understood. LANGUAGE IS EITH ER ACCQUIRED OR LEARNT: Here, human beings are not born with language though the ability to speak language is inherent in them; hence, no child starts to speak a language as soon as he/she is born.A language is either informally acquired from childhood through an unconscious process or formally learnt through a conscious learning process or in a formal learning setting like the language class. However, acquisition of language is peculiar to mother tongue while, learning proper is peculiar to other languages other than the mother tongue. It is also expedient to note that an already acquired language usually influences or impedes learning and competency in the second language usage. From the above, it is obvious that language is an essential part of human beings which they use for communication purpose.Therefore, every nation that wishes to have a meaningful transformation, must take the issue of its language very seriously. Nigeria is a typical example of a country that has not been taken the issue of language very seriously and this is part of the reasons for our backwardness in National Transformation. 2. 2: LANGUAGE AND NATIONAL TRANSFORMATION Transformation has to do with a complete change, usually into something with an improved appearance or usefulness. Transformation implies that there is an improvement of the well-being of the people.Transformation can be seen from two major angles, that is: from human and physical. For human, transformation should be seen in raising the levels of their living standard in terms of good income. Physical transformation is an aspect of transformation that does not necessarily change the living standard of the people like building skyscrapers, modern expressways and so on. Many people are poor because they cannot assume their citizens basic necessities of life. National Transformation is the growth of the nation in terms of unity, education and so on.It involves a coordinated and concentrated transformation of all aspects o f the society, Elugbe (1990) as quoted by Okoye and Okafor (2011). For National Transformation and social changes to take a positive stand, the government should share most of her favourable policies to her target audience through the accessible mediums with acceptable language. The economic transformation of any nation also helps to define its transformational processes. As it is, the process of industrialization entails a background study of the nature of the environment and its suitability for the industry.This cannot be achieved without the use of language to transmit the ideas to the people concerned Unegbu (2011). The unity of a nation has to do with the need for the various ethnic groups in that nation to see themselves as one. It is certain that Nigeria as a nation is a geographical entity that is made up of several different groups ordinarily unrelated. I stand to said that there cannot be real national unity and transformation without a strong and genuine linguistic policy that is geared towards uniting the country 3. 0: WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?Communication is the process of sharing ideas, feelings, thoughts and messages with others. The heart of communication is the dissemination of effective messages to the audience and this may involve writing, speaking, gestures, disposition and facial expressions, among others. Communication has been given several definitions by various scholars. For instance, Little (1965:4) defines communication as: â€Å"a process by which information is passed among individuals and organizations by means of previously agreed symbols†. Lyons (1965:32) views it as â€Å"an intentional transmission of information by means of some established signaling system†.Book, et al (1980:8) sees communication as â€Å"†¦ a transactional symbolic process which allows people to relate and manage their environment by establishing human contact, exchanging information, re-enforcing the attitudes and behaviours of others and changing the attitudes and behaviours of others. By these definitions, communication therefore is a means of touching others through sharing of information in agreed system. 3. 1: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION Forms of communication have been derived for the sake of convenience to simplify the process of communication.Communication is very vital to keep the environment healthy and peaceful. Imagine a world where no one understands one another. Wouldn't it be chaotic? Think about it. Communication of information, messages, opinions, speech and thoughts can be done through different forms of modern communication media, like Internet, Telephone and Mobile. Some of the basic ways of communication are by speaking, singing, sign language, body language, touch and eye contact. These basic ways of communication are used to transfer information and for the sake of this paper it shall be narrowed down into four: ?First is verbal communication, it is essentially the type of communication which uses words. It uses sounds in addition to the language, gestures and body language, while communicating. Verbal communication helps in expressing thoughts, emotions and sentiments. A phone conversation, chat with a friend, an announcement made or a speech delivered are all verbal forms of communication. For most of us, it comes with ease. As children, we learned verbal communication through the sounds around us. We soon develop and start understanding the language which helps us to communicate verbally as we grow older. Another is non-verbal communication. It is a process of communication without using words or sounds. Non-verbal communication uses gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, clothing, hairstyles and every part of the body to communicate with the audience. Dances or a gesture made by a mother to a child, are the perfect examples of non-verbal communication. ?Written communication is another form. This is where you write the words which you want to communicat e. Good written communication is essential for business purposes. Written communication is practiced in many different languages.E-mails, reports, articles and memos are some of the ways of using written communication in business. The written communication can be edited and amended many times before it is communicated to the second party to whom the communication is intended. This is one of the main advantages of using writing as the major means of communication in business activity. Written communication is used not only in business but also for informal communication purposes. Mobile SMS is an example of informal written communication see Daramola (2003). ?Fourthly is oral communication. This is the communication process conducted through spoken words.Oral communication is defined as the effective interpretation, composition, and presentation of information, ideas, and values to a specific audience. In today's world, the emergences of different forms of media have led to the commu nication process through different channels like telephones, tele-conferences, video conferences and what have you. Earlier, face-to-face meetings and speeches were the only forms of communication see also Daramola (2003). 3. 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION According to Daramola (2003), the characteristics of communication are as follows: oCommunication is dynamic, not static. It is continuous since there is no beginning and end to it in person’ life oIt is a complete process as it occurs at many levels and reflects many influences. oIt is irreversible. Once any message is sent and received, it produces effect on later messages. oIt is non sequential in that the elements are not rigidly patterned in a linear or circular manner. 3. 3: COMMUNICATION AND NATIONAL TRANSFORMATION National Transformation in Nigeria is a phenomenon that has so many meanings to different people though, all gear towards enhancing the living standard of the masses.Society as a whole cannot survive if the people are not properly informed of the way forward. And communication constitutes one of the instruments that precedes the education and re-education of the people providing changes in the society. Communication is a way of relaying a lot of information to a large segment of people. In communicating with the people, there is the communicator, the message, channel and the audience. As an ingredient for the advancement of the society, communication maintains a constant link between the people and National Transformation.The main purpose of communication is to create awareness to the public. Communication is the live wire for growth and transformation. It does not only eradicate ignorance and apathy, it aids to create awareness about happenings in the society. Lack of communication can lead to a total breakdown of activities in a society. Communication brings about freedom of speech and ideas. It gives everyone the privilege to participate in the formation of public matters. It keeps one abreast about transformational agenda and widens ones wealth of knowledge Unegbu (2011).Nigerian government need to use communication to help socio-economic and political advancement of the country and this will assist to mobilize the people towards the attainment of National Transformation of the country. With the use of communication and language, the government will be able to reach out to her numerous audiences in her policies and programmes. The aim at improving the standard of living of the masses, raising their consciousness towards protection and the defense of the nation for national interest cannot be achieved without proper communication. . 0: RECOMMENDATION The following recommendations may serve in improving the role language and communication plays in National Transformation. 1. Effort should be doubled at the teaching and learning of language and communication to meet international standards. 2. Education policy makers should make language and communication a compulsory course for all disciplines at the high education level in Nigeria. This will assist every graduate (no matter his/her area of specialization) to acquire standard language and communication skills. . The teaching of language and communication should be more intensive. This implies that more hours should be allocated to language and communication class in our schools. 4. Teachers of language and communication should be trained and re-trained to enable them cope with the complexities involved in the teaching of the course. 5. 0: CONCLUSION Communication involves the use of language to pass information, transact, and exchange ideas and expressions of thought. This implies that, language is a fundamental symbol to communication.Language is not a natural instinct; it is acquired or learnt through the effective social stages like the family, peer-group and ethnic group. Man as a social and communicative animal must live, associate and interact with people in the society to ac hieve personal aspirations. All these is greatly enhanced and facilitated by effective communication. This paper has looked at language and communication in Nigerian environment as one of the ways of enhancing National Transformation. The point is that Nigeria as a country should develop language and communication to a level that every user can effectively and adequately handle it.This is in view of the fact that the Nigerians must be prepared for the challenges of international environment since transformation is not just something that is limited to within the boundaries of a given nation-state or country. The life of a nation will be short-circuited and meaningless without language and communication. Sustained communication is therefore made possible through language.

Should Juvenile Offenders Be Tried and Punished - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 1009 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/09/11 Category Advertising Essay Did you like this example? Running head: SHOULD JUVENILE OFFENDERS BE TRIED AND PUNISHED 1 Should juvenile offenders be tried and punished with the death penalty as adults? Juan Borrego Grantham University EN 102 English Composition II Dr. Cynthia Williams August 2010 SHOULD JUVENILE OFFENDERS BE TRIED AND PUNISHED 2 Abstract This paper will focus on past cases of juvenile offenders that were given the death penalty based on reports found online (Internet). I will use that information to state in this paper ( non-Internet) the concept of the death penalty and the relationship with juveniles and adults. Many states incorporate the death penalty in their justice system for juveniles and adults alike. However, should the states give the same punishment to juveniles? Would it be fair to hold certain actions against a juvenile the same way they are held against an adult? Does the old idea of â€Å"An eye for an eye† really hold any weight in a fair trial? These are questions that I hope to answer in this paper. Keywords: Juvenile, death penalty, offender SHOULD JUVENILE OFFENDERS BE TRIED AND PUNISHED 3 Should juvenile offenders be tried and punished with the death penalty as adults? Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Should Juvenile Offenders Be Tried and Punished" essay for you Create order The United States has different ways on how to handle it’s criminals. We live in a country that allows criminals be tried fairly and be judged by a jury of their peers. However, what if that criminal is a juvenile? What if that person that you have to decide their life is too young to comprehend what they have done? No one can ever imagine what went on in that person’s head while they committed a crime. So, those who are chosen to be members of the jury must be able to put their morals aside and come up with a reasonable solution to punish this criminal. Of course the first thing that everyone must think with they think about punishing someone who killed someone is to do the same on to them. However, is that just? Can we really use the concept of â€Å" an eye for an eye† to hold a child accountable? These are questions that go through people’s minds. In order to really understand this, I will provide you with the legal view given by the U. S. Supreme Court in 2005. (Read: Article) I will also provide you with information taken by the United Nations in 2000 concerning the Death Penalty in the United States. Source: UN,ABC News, 2000) The United States Supreme Court (2005) abolished capital punishment for juvenile offenders finding that it was unconstitutional to sentence anyone younger than 18 to death for a crime they committed. They stated that the death penalty for minors is considered cruel and unusual punishment. Along with their ruling, they said that teenagers are medically and socially too immature to be held ac countable for their criminal actions. The higher justices ruled on this issue 5 to 4. SHOULD JUVENILE OFFENDERS BE TRIED AND PUNISHED 4 The supreme court based their ruling on the case of Roper v. Simmons ( Case No. 03-633) . The suspect in this case (Christopher Simmons) was 17 at the time he kidnapped and killed a woman (Roper). Simmons along with 72 others from 12 states were spared from facing death. Due to this ruling given by the higher court, juveniles are now only sentenced to life or other prison terms instead of facing capital punishment. According to an investigation conducted by the United Nations only 5 years earlier (2000), the United States was the only country that strongly opposed the execution of minors as a form of punishment yet still did it. At that time, the only other countries that executed children under 18 are Iran, Yemen, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Nigeria. These are primarily Muslim countries in which the concept of â€Å" an eye for and eye† is strongly upheld. The United States since 1985 up until 2000 when this report came out, had xecuted more juvenile offenders than all the other countries combined. Only 20 years earlier, most of Americans were against capital punishment by 50 percent. Today, over 71 percent of Americans are in favor of the death penalty. That is a huge change over a 20 year period. SHOULD JUVENILE OFFENDERS BE TRIED AND PUNISHED 5 Discussion In my opinion, I think the death penalty should be ratified in order to include juveniles of certain age. I mean, morally I disagre e on capital punishment altogether. As a Christian, I find it unjust to kill someone for killing another. I see it as committing the same crime on to them, only in our eyes we find it to be fair. However, looking at it from a legal standpoint, I support capital punishment because I provides closure to the victim’s family and will prevent that criminal from being released into society only to be re-instituted for the same crime. Studies have shown that juveniles from the age of 16 and up are able to comprehend things the way most average adults can. That is because of the society has changed over the course of time. Since 2001, society the United States has been more alert and mentally hostile in a way because of the 9/11 attacks, two wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and the economic downturn. This in turn has changed households, turning them more hostile in the eyes of children. Yes, we can say that most young adults simply need guidance because they were raised in a broken home. But what about those who were raised the same but didn’t resort to violence or crime? What can the court system tell the families of those who were killed by juveniles? This is a very touchy topic both politically and morally. However, I strongly believe that anyone that is mature enough to commit such crimes, is mature enough to be held accountable for their actions. Just because you are 17 and legally aren’t considered an adult, doesn’t mean one doesn’t see them as one. SHOULD JUVENILE OFFENDERS BE TRIED AND PUNISHED 6 References United Nations, U. S. News World Report, ABC News. (2000) Death Penalty Information Center, Amnesty International. www. abcnews. com Lane, C. (2005) 5-4 Supreme Court Abolishes Juvenile Executions Page A01, Washington Post .

Factors Affecting Performance Management Systems Business Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2186 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Cause and effect essay Did you like this example? In order to achieve common recognition of work prospects, areas and opportunities that exist for the growth of the employees as well as for the organization by appraising performance outcomes, an evolving concept of performance management is on the rise. Performance management is a systematic process that links means that enable organizations to foster a common image related to the goals set by the organization and in providing direction to workers so that they can comprehend and preserve for both, individual as well as companys performance (Holton, 2002). According to (Salem, 2003) , performance management can be stated as a methodology that is integrative and orderly for the purpose of enlightening organizational performance that encourages a philosophy focused towards the attainment of planned aims, mission, vision and principles. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Factors Affecting Performance Management Systems Business Essay" essay for you Create order More precisely, it is concerned with evaluating the performance of workforces so that development can be carried in by relating suitable assessment and rewards for the efforts of the employees and by simplifying the flow of communication, boosting learning prospects and explicatory work engagements (Salem, 2003). OBJECTIVES OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM: Lockett has underlined a number of performance managements goals. They are as follows: The main aim of performance management is to facilitate the workforce of an organization to achieve higher standards of performing their job responsibilities. Performance management enables the employees to improve the level of their current performance by authorizing, encouraging and executing an operative reward mechanism. Facilitating smooth flow of communication so that potentials regarding roles, tasks, reporting are simplified between the managers and the employees. It enables the communication of corporate, business and functional goals alongside providing a systematic and apparent opinion about performance of the employee. Ensures constant supervision and coaching. The key aim for performance management is to identify and resolve the barriers that prevent effective performance. This can be done by way of providing instructions, active governance, close monitoring and change interventions. Building a foundation for numerous organizational assessments deliberate arrangements, succession planning, advancements and rewards linked with performance. Providing employees with the opportunity to prosper by exploiting the opportunities that exist so as to achieve personal growth and improvement in their career (Lockett, 1992). FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS: For performance management system to be implemented, there are a number of conditions that must exist prior to its execution. These factors include: Ability of manager to mobilize the organization. Effectively communicating the roles, duties and responsibilities of all such individuals who are the participants in the process of bringing about change. Transparency and Simplicity Practicality and Participation Equality and Objectivity (Amatayakul, 2005). STYLE OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT In the views of Joseph R. Grima, performance management should be: Participative: Performance management is a two way process and must encourage the participation of both supervisor and employee. This participation should be there for establishing objectives at the very start of the assessment period and at the end, evaluating results. Task-oriented: Performance should be measured on the basis of business objectives and the outcomes, personal traits and pre-defined areas and targets. Developmental: The process should be implemented not only to evaluate and rate employees but also to help the employees to advance their future career paths by way of personal growth and development. It should also identify the areas where employee needs further training (Grima, 2000). It is essential for performance management system to be participative, task-oriented as well as developmental. If the performance management system of an organization doesnt provides the employees opportuniti es to learn and develop when deficiencies from the results are identified, than such system is of no use. The main focus of performance management is to identify and to address vital people issues that exist in an organization. It leads towards building relationship with the people employed by the organization. It creates an environment or work setting that enables the employed people to best perform the abilities that they possess (Heathfield, 2012). PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT MODEL An integrated model of performance management is presented by (Thomas G. Cummings C. G., 2005). (Thomas G. Cummings C. G., 2005) pg #421. For effective implementation of performance management, it is important to consider three appropriate factors that exist in the larger organizational perspective and affects performance organization wide. These factors include: Business Strategy: It includes internal and external environment within which the company operates. It also includes all those policies, procedures, plans, objectives, environment that enables an organization to compete in the most successful manner and the focus that organization has on effective performance of its employees. Workplace Technology: Workplace technology has a huge impact on performance of individuals and groups. It depends upon whether the technology is high or low in interdependence. In case technology is highly interdependent, work structures are preferably designed for work groups rather than individuals and performance management in such a case is aimed at work group behavior (Thomas G. Cummings C. G., 2005). Employee Involvement: Level of involvement depends upon the control that exists in an organization varying from bureaucratic to flexible. Organizations rigid controls discourage participation and the setting of goals, appraisal of performance are formalized and inflexibly administered by management. On the other hand, when organizations are supportive and flexible, participation from employees is encouraged, sense of ownership increases and performance management becomes a two way process for employees as well as for the employer (Thomas G. Cummings C. G., 2005). GOAL SETTING: Goal setting specifies the acceptable level of performance. It is a two way process in which employee and the employer establishes and gain understanding of the goals set for the employee to achieve. Goal setting involves: Establishing challenging goals: An organization should set goals by encouraging participation from the employees, setting challenging and clear goals that are specifically defined and realistic (Thomas G. Cummings C. G., 2005). Clarifying goal measurement: When the goals set by the organization are specific, each employee has a clear understanding of what is expected from him. However to achieve clarity in goal measurement, goals should be operationally defined (Thomas G. Cummings C. G., 2005). Management by objectives: Another way of setting goals is by way of management by objectives (MBO); focusing on alignment of personal goals with the business strategy by facilitating the flow of communication between the manager and the subordinate and by unificat ion of conflicts where it exists(Thomas G. Cummings C. G., 2005). . This process of MBO can be implemented by following the below mentioned steps: Step1: Group along with individual goals is defined and action plans are developed for the achievement of the set goals. Step2: Job duties, responsibilities and accountabilities are stated so that the individual has a clear understanding of what is to be done and what not. Step3: A course of action for the execution of goals is determined known as action plans. Step4: At this stage, the acceptable criteria for success and performance are agreed upon between the manager and the subordinate. This has to be a two way process so that a mutual understanding of goals and success criteria is achieved. Step5: From time to time, manager reviews the performance of the subordinate or in other words review the progress of the work assigned. This step can be broken down into three sub-steps. First step is when the subordinate takes the initiative to talk with the manager about the opportunities, hurdles, achievements accomplished. Second step is when manager initiates a dialogue or meeting with the subordinate to discuss about the work plans for the future. In the last step, coaching and analysis usually takes place. Step6: All the documents related to goal setting, success criterion, priorities, rewards and due dates are forwarded to a senior management (Thomas G. Cummings C. G., 2005). PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL Discussing and reviewing the performance of an employee in context of the tasks and responsibilities assigned to him as part of his job. Appraisal is based on job performance rather than personal characteristics of an employee. It provides an employee with the chance of identifying areas that needs improvement and also directs as to what are the strengths to capitalize on and weaknesses to avoid (Lee, 2007). Process of performance appraisal: According to (Egan, 1995), the process of performance appraisal is as follows: Establishing standards: First and foremost step in performance appraisal process is to set standards based upon which actual and desired performance can be compared. For this purpose, the standards set should be simple, clear and measureable. Communicating standards: Standards set but not well communicated will be of no use. Thus it is essential that the employees must be communicated about the set standards so that they have a clear idea as to what is expected of them (Egan, 1995). Measuring actual performance: This stage in the process of performance appraisal is the most difficult because to quantify the level of actual performance is complex. Appropriate measurement tools must be selected so that the performance measured is objective and realistic (Egan, 1995). Comparing actual with preferred performance: This comparison is important so that deviation from preferred performance is quantif ied. If the actual performance is below the desired level, result is negative deviation (Egan, 1995). Discussing results: Upon comparing the actual with the preferred performance, the result of the comparison whether it is positive or negative is communicated to the employee. Employer also pays attention as to why this deviation is taking place. At this stage, pragmatic solutions are determined and evaluated with each employee individually (Egan, 1995). Decision making: At this stage, decision is made i.e. what needs to be done in order to improve the performance and what corrective actions need to be taken. Performance appraisal must be consistent, timely, precise and conventional to users, focused on important control points and economically realistic (Thomas G. Cummings C. G., 2005). REWARD SYSTEM: The importance of designing and implementing reward systems in organization is increasing at a rapid pace. It is a matter of common observation that when employee performs a good job, they expect to receive some kind of reward in turn. Thus reward system of any organization plays an important role in motivating employees towards performance (Thomas G. Cummings C. G., 2005).Following are some of the reward systems: Job Based: According to this system, pay structure is designed in which salary schedules are determined according to the position range based upon responsibilities and tasks assigned. This system minimizes the likelihood of probable biased pay practices (Kokemuller, 2007). Performance Based: It is important for this kind of system to be successful, performance must be linked with the rewards that individuals receive such as for good performances salary may increase, a bonus may be rewarded (Thomas J. Atchison, 2010). Skill and Knowledge-Based Pay System: Accordin g to this system, employees must be rewarded according to the knowledge, skills and abilities that they possess often called skills inventory. As employees are paid on this basis, it results in increased motivation, improved productivity, lower absenteeism and turnover (Paren, 1994). Gain Sharing Systems: This is a form of remuneration. It offers a good deal for both employer as well as employee. Since employer are willing to negotiate deals in terms of improved performance and employees are willing to negotiate deals in terms of fair returns for their efforts (Bowey, 2008). Promotion Systems: This system enables employees to grow their position and acquire higher-status positions in the organization. Nowadays, open job posting has become a norm and enables employees who believe in their abilities to suggest their names (Thomas G. Cummings C. G., 2005). GUIDELINES FOR IMPROVING PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM: At times the best considered performance management system is subject to collapse if it is improperly managed. Fraser has provided a number of guidelines for improving the performance management system and is as follows: An article for the purpose of internal affairs such as an internal manual should be produced that explains the PM system and must be done on consistent basis. The employees must have a clear idea as to how PM system works and must be able to understand its connection with their individual performance. In order to bring in efficiency and to avoid potential biases, senior management should be trained in this regard. Good performance should be recorded in a formal document and be rewarded accordingly. On the other hand, poor performance should be recorded and opportunities to improve must be offered alongside monitoring whether improved performance is evident or not. Key performance indicators should be developed that are simple and clear to the employe es. Most importantly, organizations should avoid developing too many key performance indicators otherwise the focus on important issues can be abstracted (Fraser, 2007). CONCLUSION With reference to the above mentioned sources, we can conclude that the integrated process of performance management aims to identify, assess and strengthen employee work behaviors and outcomes. Involvement of the employees of the organization is crucial to make the performance management system a success. Goal setting, performance appraisal and reward systems form part of the performance management system. Organizations who dont emphasize on the effectiveness of performance management system fails to understand the importance of employee involvement and all those benefits resulting for the employer as well as for the employee. For a company to be a success in the long run, a well designed and implemented performance management system should exist in the organization.

Kurt Vonneguts Tragic Path to Success - 1128 Words

Kurt Vonnegut, was born on November 11, 1922 in Indianapolis, Indiana, to American-German parents Kurt Vonnegut (Sr.), and Edith Vonnegut. Vonnegut had an older brother, Bernard and an older sister, Alice. Vonnegut graduated from Shortridge High School in Indianapolis in 1940 and went to Cornell University later that fall. Though he majored in chemistry, he was Assistant Managing Editor and Associate Editor of the Cornell newspaper. While at Cornell, Vonnegut enlisted in the United States Army. The Army then transferred him to the Carnegie Institute of Technology and finally the University of Tennessee to study mechanical engineering. On Mothers Day in 1944, while on leave during WWII, he found out that his mother had committed suicide with sleeping pills. Later in 1984, Vonnegut would also attempt suicide by pills and alcohol and fail. On December 14, 1944, Vonnegut would be captured in the Battle of the Bulge by German soldiers. He was held as a prisoner of war in Dresden, a German city with no major industries or military presence. The bombing of Dresden was unexpected and Vonnegut and the other Prisoners of War were the only survivors after they escaped. They waited out the bombing in a meat cellar deep under the house where they were keep. Vonnegut was taken back to the U.S in May 1945 and afterwards married Jane Marie Cox. He studied anthropology, the study of humans, at the University of Chicago, but the department rejected his Masters thesis. According to theShow MoreRelatedWhat is The Meaning of Free Will in Life Essay1571 Words   |  7 Pages Free will is the idea in which individuals can have the power of acting without the constraint of necessity or fate, and this idea of free will served as a prevalent theme in Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five. Vonnegut illustrates the absurdity of no free will in Pilgrim’s world through the book’s nonlinear structure and unorganized plot. The novel is constructed as a series of inconsistent flashbacks and future incidents through the eyes of the protagonist, Billy Pilgrim. Billy Pilgrim is able

History of Muslim Civilisations and Ideas

Question: How limited are we in understanding the past. Discuss in relation to issues and examples arising from your readings about the sources? Answer: In general, there are two types of sources available with us to get information for the past. These two sources are broadly classified as primary and secondary sources. Primary sources also referred to as first-hand sources are the ones which are written during which the specific event must have taken place (Bowen, 1928). These primary sources can include original documents, creative works and relics or artefacts. Original documents can be dairies, speeches, manuscripts, interviews, film footage, autobiographies and also official records. Creative works can include poetry, drama, novels, music etc. Further, relics can include pottery, furniture, clothing and building. Alternatively, secondary sources are second-hand sources. These sources, basically interprets the primary sources and are not written or developed during the original events. However, secondary sources can have pictures, quotes and graphics from primary sources. Commonly used secondary sources to know about past can inc lude publications. By definition, publication is defined as developing literature, journals or information and making it available to general public. Publications can be developed in form of textbooks, magazine articles, encyclopaedia, histories etc (Frye, 1975). One of the critical questions that we usually face while referring to primary and secondary sources to know about past is whether the source is credible or not? It is hard to judge whether the source is trustworthy. In such cases, looking for potential evidences to prove that the sources are trustworthy becomes one of the urgent points. This essay is based on examining various sources available to know about the past of Islam. The easy discusses about what are the sources of understanding the history of Islam and how much can we trust them? For this, we will be talking about two types of sources; traditional and non traditional and criticise them in regards to their trustworthiness. Towards the end, the essay will come down to the fact that compared to other religions the history of Islam is very strong. But there are and will always will be uncertainties and doubts related to it. In general, different aspects of Islam have been derived from Quran and the Sunna. By definition, Sunna refers to the sayings and habits of Mohammed. Besides Quran and Sunna, other factors influencing political aspects of Islam are Muslim history and non-Islamic political movements. Earlier, political concepts of Islam comprised of Caliphs, Sharia and Shura (Wiley, 2004). By definition, Caliphs are defined as the representatives who were elected or selected successors of Prophets. On the other hand, Sharia was defined as the importance of following of Islamic law and Shura was defined as the duty of the rulers to seek consultation from subjects. The abolition of Caliphate in 1924 was a major turning point in the history of Islamic world politically. Muhammad played a crucial in the Islamic religion and was believed to be last prophet sent by God to mankind. Muslims believe that Muhammad unified Arabia in a once polity called Islam (Sicker, 2000). The views about Muhammad differ among Islamic and non-Islamic communities. It was believed that by Islamic communities that Muhammad restored the original monotheistic faith of prophets including Adam, Mosses etc. Alternatively, non-Islamic communities believed that Muhammad was the founder of Islam. Muhammad lost his parents at an early age and hence, brought up by his paternal uncle. He worked as a merchant after his childhood. It was reported that Muhammad would go to a cave and spent many days there alone and praying to god in her early 40s (Wiley, 2004). As believed by Islamic communities, he received his first revelation with god in the caves only. As a result, after three years of this event, he started preaching Muslims that God is one. According to his teachings, one should surrender himself to god if he/she wants to get God. His teachings influenced few people in Islam and hence, he gained few followers. He also met with hostility from some Arabian tribes and to get rid of it, Muhammad and his followers migra ted to Medina. This event is particularly referred to as Hijra. This event led to the formation of Islamic calendar called Hijri calendar (Hanne, 2007). Hence, Quran was formed by revelations of Muhammad that he gathered during his life. The death of Muhammad was a turning point in Islam. With his death, there was a chaos that who would be his successor. Many companions of Muhammad were excited to take over as his successor (Richard, 2009). Traditional Sources Historians usually adopt the concept of Historiography to gather information about the past. By definition, historiography refers to the study of early Islam from the death of Muhammad to disintegration of Rashidun Caliph in 661 AD. Islam, as per Quran is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion. Quran is a holy book followed by Muslims and is composed of prophetic traditions of Muhammad (Muir, 2005). To know about the history of Islam, there are two kinds of sources used by researchers; traditional sources and non-traditional sources. Traditional sources used by researchers to know about the history of Islam are Quran and Sunnah of the prophet. Quran is an Islamic holy book, which Muslims believe to be a revelation of God. As per the beliefs of Muslims, Quran was revealed to Muhammad by God. Basically, Quran is Arabic word which means recitation. As believed, Quran was written during the life of Prophet Muhammad and was complied after his death. Quran is considered as one of the critic al sources about history of Islam. The holy book consists of 114 chapters (Surahs) and about 6000 versus. Broadly, the scripture comprises of economic, political, social and moral aspects of the Muslim world. Believed by many Muslim scholars that Quran is not a legal code entirely and it just teaches the kind of relationship that the man should have with God. Since Quran comprises of 6000 versus so these have been divided into three categories; science of speculative theology, rules of human conduct and ethical principles. There have been numerous judgements and opinions about the interpretation of Quran. The most authentic interpretation of versus are done by companions of Muhammad for Sunis and Imams of Shias (Muir, 2005). The reason is that they knew the exact time and place of the revelation of every versus. Besides the Muhammads companions, other important aid used to interpret the meaning of Quran is the Hadith. It is the collection of traditions of Islam from which details ab out the Islamic history can be derived. Then Shariah is the foundation of Islam which is derived from versus of Quran. Since Quran consists of a broad vision about the life of Muslims so interpretation of Quran plays a significant role. There have been numerous interpretations by researchers and Muslim thinkers. However, the authenticity of Quran is never doubtful since it is one of the critical sources to know about the history of Islam. There has been a great textual criticism linked with the Quran. Judaism and Christianity have been suffering from long-held questions about the origin of Bible. On the similar lines, many thinkers have also targeted Quran and claim that some parts of the holy book have been taken from stores of Tanakh. The differences in the versions of Quran and biblical texts reveal that some versus of Quran were not taken from texts rather has been part of oral traditions of Arab peninsula (Muir, 2005). However, this explanation appears weird to Muslims. The cri tics who have raised the issue of textual criticism against Quran have also sought to find text evolution in early Islam. However, the beliefs of Muslims in Quran entails that there are no inconsistencies and uncertainties in Quran. Hence, Quran is one of the important Islamic sources to know about the past of Muslim world. Besides Quran, other forms of traditional sources to know about history of Islam include Sunna (tradition of the Prophet), Qiyas or Analogy and Ijma or unanimous agreement (Muir, 2005). The Sunna or tradition of the Prophet The Sunna is one of the important traditional sources of Islamic law. Sunnah is an Arabic word that means Method in English. Sunnah, popularly known as the tradition of Prophet, was a term brought to life by the Prophet Muhammad as a legitimate word to depict what he believed, did and permitted. The Sunna or tradition of the Prophet includes the words, mottos, conducts, known practices, assertions of the Prophet. All the words, as well as, actions of the Prophet were carefully recorded and maintained a Hadith (Muir, 2005). Numerous records of traditions were assembled by the confidants of the Prophet which were then amalgamated with the pools if Hadith of Muslim, Bokhari, etc. The collectors of the Hadith (traditions) implemented a very scientific approach of collecting them. All the traditions they recorded were accompanied with a chain of narrators, back to the Prophet or in some cases Companion of the Prophet. The Sunna is a trusted and reliable set of traditions. The Sunnah and Q uran are interdependent. The Sunnah, mainly, explains the Quran in detail. Qiyas or Analogy Qiyas is another important source of Islamic Law. The literal meaning of qiyas is gauging the length, size, weight or quality of something. However, according to the principles of Islamic jurisprudence, Qiyas is simply the reasoning by applying the process of deductive analogy. It is a process of deducing a rule for a new issue that has similar aim or motive (Illah) to an already existing rule. In this process, the motive of a known role is compared to that of the new issue, and if both are more or less, the Qiyas can be executed. However, the use of reasoning using deductive analogy among scholars was always wide ranging. While some proponents like Spains Ibn Hazm opposed the use of qiyas, others like Imam Abu Hanifa made wide use of them. Ijma or unanimous agreement Ijma, another significant source of Islamic Law, entails a unanimous or undisputed agreement of a group of jury members of same age on a specific issue. It is the fourth and final source of law according to Shafiis practices. In cases where issues or questions of Quranic clarification stood up and there existed no elucidation on them in either Quran or Sunna, jurists or an exclusive panel of proponents of Islam applied their own reasoning (ijtihaj) to come to a conclusion or an understanding. Different people perceive things differently. In the similar way, intellectual elite always had varied thoughts and so unanimous agreement hardly ever happened. Hence, the meaning of ijma and which ijma should be considered effective, as well as, useful was always a well debated issue (Richard, 2000). The Muslim society believed that it needs a rule making power to come across the practical issues and problems for the execution of Islamic Law and so ijma found its existence. Ijma or the unanimou s agreement is thought of as an adequate evidence for action as the Prophet of Islam believed that Muslim could never approve of a wrong matter or deed. These are some of the traditional sources used to know about the history of Islam. The traditions of Prophet have always been questioned due to their validity and authenticity. There were also debates on the issue that on what extend were the traditions religiously imperative. These sources let us know that followers and scholars of Islam believe that Islam has been present since the time of prophet, Adam. However, some literatures mention that Islam came into being in Mecca and Medina. The evolution of Islam state and Muslim state of government went through several stages. Various periods of evolution of Islam state and Muslim state of government comprise of City-state period, Imperial period and Universal period. The City-state period was from 620 to 630. Imperial period lasted from 630 to 750s (Frye, 1975). Finally, Universal period lasted from 750s to 900s. These three periods evolution of Islam state was followed by Decentralization and Fragmentation Period. The Decentralization period was from late 900s to early 1500s whereas the Fragmentation period was from late 1500s to late 1910s. These were followed by the Contemporary period which extends from late 1910s to twenty first century. Historically, the popular prophets in the Islam world comprise of Adam, Moses, Noah, Abraham and Jesus. As a result, the Muslim community has expanded rapidly (Hanne, 2007). The turning point in the Islamic world was the death of Mohammed. This event led to the expansion of Islamic community from Spain to Indus. During the golden age of Islam, the religion gave rise to many centres engaged in culture and science and led to rise of numerous doctors, philosophers, astronomers, mathematicians etc. As a result, there were technological advancements in the Islamic field and more number of people started reading Quran and it rapidly increased the rate of literacy in the field. In 18th and 19th century, regions of Islam feel under the political invasion of European Great Powers (Muir, 2005). Islamic community were also got affected by socialism and secularism. By definition, socialism refers to a political and economic theory, according to which, means of production, distribution and exchange needs to be owned and regulated by an organisation as a whole. On the other hand, secularism is defined as the principle of separation of government and followers that are authorised to represent the state from religious institutions and dignitaries. In spite of being influenced by the theories of socialism and secularism, the Islamic community dominated the political environment in early 20th century. This was the history and origin of Islamic community (Smith, 2002). Non-traditional Sources Second types of sources available to know about the history of Islam are non-traditional or secondary sources. These sources are not developed during past rather have been created using traditional sources of Islam only such as interpretation of Quran, Sunna, Qiyas and Ijmas. There can be numerous questions raised about the authenticity of the secondary source. A researcher can find it difficult to judge if the book or magazine developed using the interpretations of Quran is authentic or not. Non-traditional sources available to know about the history of Islam usually provide analysis, commentary and interpretation (Smith, 2002). High quality non-traditional sources available to retrieve data about the past of Islam are referred from multiple sources rather than one single primary source. Many Muslim and non-Muslim scholars have written about historical events, ideas and people of past Muslim world by taking references from first-hand sources. The authenticity of the sources plays a big role. It is often questioned that how do we know, what we know. Millions of Muslims across world believe that texts provided in the collection of hadith provide authentic words. Hence, the advocates of Muslim sources have come up with a criterion to prove that traditional sources used to know past of Islam are authentic. It is believed that narrators of the traditional sources had been alive some fourteen centuries ago so critics can determine, were they check by contemporaries of their times, by hadith scholars or who? But many scholars argue that it is an unreliable and non-acceptable way to check the authenticity of the sources (Smith, 2002). Considering the traditional and non-traditional sources, it is believed that history of Islam is stronger than other religions. In spite of the textual criticisms that both traditional and non-traditional sources of history of Islam receive from critics and thinkers, these are considered as best sources to know about the history and civilisations of Islam (Wiley, 2004). The sources state that the fundamental concept of Islam is to believe in one God. As per the Islamic sources, Muslims are not required to visualize god but to adore him and worship him like a protector. The sources reveal that although every religion has followers and doubters, pious and pragmatists but Islamic history is one of the stronger histories as Muslims are more committed to their religion than others. As per a poll conducted by a British company in December 2014, it is observed that history of Islam tends to motivate Muslims more than histories of any other religion (Sicker, 2000). However, there have been c onsistent uncertainties and doubts regarding this. References Bowen, H. (1928). The Life and Times of Ê ¿Al Ibn Ê ¿s: The Good Vizier., Cambridge University Press. pp. 385. Frye, N. (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran., Volume Four: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Hanne, E. (2007). Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate., Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. pp. 55. Muir, W. (2005). The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall., Management Press, pp. 256 Smith, J. (2002) The Oxford History of the Crusades., Oxford University Press, pp. 213. Wiley, M. (2004). Donald Sidney Richards, The chronicle of Ibn al-AthÄ «r for the crusading period from al-KÄ mil fÄ «'l-ta'rÄ «kh., University Press, pp. 254 Sicker, M. (2000). The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna., Greenwood Publishing Group. Richard, J. (2009). The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem., Volume 1. 1979. Page 36.

Hitler Good leader Compared to Odysseus Essay Example

Hitler Good leader Compared to Odysseus Paper The Odyssey Was Hitler a good leader? He was a good leader; Hitler was well spoken, very charismatic and very persuasive. He had a way to get others to follow and believe in his visions and beliefs. 1. He is both a good leader and hero. Hero he never backed down from a fight, he left Ithaca not knowing he will return. He is a leader because he is fearless, cautious and sneaky. Fearless in any obstacle he has to face, he has everything he has against monsters, gods. He fought Circe when she turned his men into pigs, and facing all those suitors that try and take his place as king. We will write a custom essay sample on Hitler Good leader Compared to Odysseus specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Hitler Good leader Compared to Odysseus specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Hitler Good leader Compared to Odysseus specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer As he approaches obstacles, he always finds a solution. As he approaches the Sirens, he orders his men to put beeswax in their ears to prevent them from crashing their ships due to their beautiful and enchanting songs. Without Odysseus cautiousness, his crew would have risk everyones lives by going into dangerous situations. A hero is someone who does something courageous or valiant, anyone can be a hero. A leader is someone who can easily take control of a situation and direct, take charge of people, or motivate people; only a select few people are truly natural leaders. Not all heroes are leaders, some in situations think of themselves and not the big picture. Most leaders can be heroes, it takes a lot of courage to take upon a responsibility and carry that throughout. Like Odysseus he was both a hero and a leader. He saved his men multiple times making him a hero and he was a great leader in which everyone respected him for. When trapped in the cave of Polymers Odysseus acts like a leader coming up with a brilliant plan that help his men escape, making him a hero in the end. Leaders need to have certain attributions such as Honesty- Leaders have o be honest, those under your charge must trust you, and if they do not then they will not follow. Responsibility- Making decisions and living up to the consequences. Good leaders do not blame others for what they have done, they deal with the situation. Confidence- Believing in one self is important for a leader because if you do not and others see they will not trust or follow. Enthusiasm-Having energy and emphasizing the importance of what you mean. If you cannot get a crowd to move or get their attention then no one will listen or follow. Reliability- Being a leader people kook for you to be the back support of a group. They rely on you to get them to the situation. Patience- Needed in order to be able to explain, teach, and demonstrate the charges or simple things to anyone. Determination- See tasks through to the bitter end, and keeps your charges motivated to continue. Loyalty- Being committed to whatever you believe and making people have the faith in you. Courage- As a leader, you must have courage in order to be decisive. You cant be afraid of failure, or else you will not be able to function as a leader. Have the courage to stick to your invocations or go with a gut instinct. Dont be afraid to try a new approach. Cyclops, you ask my honorable name? Remember the gift you promised me, I shall tell you. My name is Nobody: mother, father, and friends, everyone calls me Nobody (9. 395-398) Steer wide; keep well to seaward; plug your oarsmans ear with beeswax kneaded soft; none of the rest should hear that song (12. 57-60). Mimi took my house to still alive. Contempt was all you had for the gods who rule wide heaven, contempt for what men say of you hereafter. Your last hour has come. You die in blood (12. 38-43).

3 Comma Splices and How to Repair Them

3 Comma Splices and How to Repair Them 3 Comma Splices and How to Repair Them 3 Comma Splices and How to Repair Them By Mark Nichol A comma often serves to link two independent clauses, but it does so in partnership with a conjunction (as shown in this sentence). When a pair of independent clauses butt up against each other with a comma but no conjunction, the grammatical infraction is known as a comma splice- the name refers to the writer’s effort to splice the clauses together with a comma, which is the wrong use of the tool. Which tool is the correct one? Several are available in your writer’s toolbox: The semicolon (a supercomma of sorts) is usually the best choice, but depending on the interrelationship of the clauses, you could, alternatively, employ a period (creating two distinct sentences) or even a dash (showing an abrupt break in thought). Here are three sentences containing a comma splice and their revisions. 1. â€Å"You can sense the frustration, their morale is down,† Smith said of his colleagues. â€Å"‘You can sense the frustration; their morale is down,’ Smith said of his colleagues† is the technically correct solution, but a semicolon is overly formal for a quotation. In this case, use the more casual dash: â€Å"‘You can sense the frustration- their morale is down,’ Smith said of his colleagues.† Another option is to break the statement into two sentences; but insert the attribution between them: â€Å"‘You can sense the frustration,’ Smith said of his colleagues. ‘Their morale is down.’† (Do not use a semicolon or a dash after an attribution.) 2. The devices themselves don’t use logarithms, rather they are tools to reduce multiplication and division of natural numbers to simple addition and subtraction operations. A transitional word such as rather between two independent clauses is a clear signal that a stronger punctuation mark than a comma is required, because one should follow the word, and a stronger punctuation mark should set the clauses off from each other. A semicolon will suffice: â€Å"The devices themselves don’t use logarithms; rather, they are tools to reduce multiplication and division of natural numbers to simple addition and subtraction operations.† (Rather can also begin a separate sentence, but the second clause is so closely related to the first that a semicolon seems more suitable.) 3. The frame was finished two years later- a little behind schedule, the structure was supposed to open in 1989. The inclusion of a dash in this sentence complicates it, because it introduces confusion about which phrase deserves the most emphasis. A simple solution is to demote the â€Å"Hey, look at me!† dash to a more workmanlike comma and use a semicolon to tack on the final phrase as an independent clause: â€Å"The frame was finished two years later, a little behind schedule; the structure was supposed to open in 1989.† One could use a dash in place of the semicolon, but the information that follows isn’t surprising enough to merit the attention-seeking punctuation mark. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Synonyms for â€Å"Leader†Proved vs. Proven20 Movies Based on Shakespeare Plays